Multi-Sector Innovation

Building products and solutions across education, industry & research.

E2 Innovations LLC develops AI-powered educational tools, virtual laboratory simulations, manufacturing solutions, quality assurance services, and research-driven resources designed to create measurable impact.

● In Business Since 2010

● Established 2010
About Us

A multidisciplinary company built on academic rigor and practical innovation

E2 Innovations LLC is a multidisciplinary company led by highly qualified academics and professionals with extensive experience spanning higher education, applied science, technology development, and institutional quality assurance.

Established in 2010, the company has grown steadily to serve educational institutions, industrial partners, and research organizations across multiple sectors. Our long-standing presence reflects a consistent commitment to building products and services that create genuine value.

Our work spans digital education technology, specialty manufacturing, institutional quality improvement, media production, publishing, and collaborative research. Each area reflects the same foundational commitment to rigor, clarity, and meaningful outcomes.

Core Focus Areas

Practical educational innovation — tools built by educators, for educators
AI-powered applications designed for real academic workflows
Virtual laboratory simulations for flexible science education
Applied manufacturing solutions in specialty materials
Institutional quality and academic standards accountability
Academic publishing — books, resources, and instructional content
Research-driven development across education and applied sectors
Creative media and visual content for education and outreach
Educational Technology

AI-Powered Educational Apps

Purpose-built browser extensions that work inside the platforms you already use — D2L, Canvas, Moodle, and Blackboard. Each tool uses your own AI API key.

Accessibility
AI-powered document accessibility fixing for higher education
Accessibility
E2AF AccessFix™
AI-powered accessibility fixer for Word, PDF, PowerPoint & Excel. Works inside your LMS. Finds issues, fixes them automatically, and delivers a corrected file — all in one click.
  • Fixes Word (.docx) — language, title, heading structure, reading order, table headers
  • Fixes PDF — accessibility tags, language, title; converts scanned PDFs to readable Word documents
  • Fixes PowerPoint (.pptx / .ppt) — language, title, AI alt text per slide, old format conversion
  • Fixes Excel (.xlsx / .xls) — sheet names, language, title, old format conversion
  • AI-generated alt text for images on web pages — results shown inside the extension with history saved
  • Live page scanner — detects and highlights accessibility issues on any LMS page
  • Course-wide scan — audits up to 20 Canvas/D2L pages, grades each A–F, downloads a full report
  • Scanned & handwritten PDFs — AI reads and converts to fully accessible Word documents
  • Old formats (.doc, .xls, .ppt) auto-converted to modern accessible formats
  • Batch upload — check and fix multiple files at once, all downloaded automatically
  • Accessibility score — A–F grade with issue count, fixes applied, and manual steps
  • Works on D2L, Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard — any institution, any URL
  • Page credits never expire — buy once, use any time
AccessFix Credits — choose your pack
Desktop version available — please request pricing
Disclaimer
AccessFix automatically fixes the most common accessibility issues in documents and web pages. It does not guarantee full WCAG 2.1 Level AA compliance. Some issues require human review and cannot be fixed automatically. This tool is not legal advice and does not constitute ADA or Section 508 compliance certification. E2 Innovations LLC accepts no liability for accessibility-related claims arising from use of this tool. Users remain solely responsible for ensuring their materials meet applicable legal standards. AI-converted scanned documents should be reviewed for completeness, particularly those containing scientific notation, Greek symbols, mathematical equations, or handwritten annotations. Files containing embedded audio or video may not convert correctly. Files must not be password protected. Maximum recommended file size is 50MB. The AI alt text feature scans web pages only — it cannot access pages behind a login or paywall, and each image processed uses one credit. AI-generated alt text must be reviewed for accuracy before use. When images are converted from scanned PDFs, AI-generated alt text descriptions are provided as text — the original image will not reappear in the converted document and the alt text should be applied manually in Word. PDF forms and documents with complex visual layouts may not retain their original form structure after conversion — content is preserved but layout may differ from the original.
Teaching & Quality
AI tools that save instructors hours every week
Teaching
E2TA TeachAssist™
AI teaching assistant for college instructors. Generate content, grade, and manage student communication from your browser.
  • Discussion replies, grading feedback, rubrics
  • Lesson plans, exam questions, answer keys
  • Photo upload — analyse student work from images
  • Page scan — reads your LMS course automatically
  • Works on D2L, Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard
TeachAssist Credits — choose your pack
Desktop version available — please request pricing
Disclaimer
TeachAssist generates AI-assisted content for instructor use. All generated content must be reviewed and verified by the instructor before use. It does not replace professional academic judgment, institutional policy, or accreditation requirements. E2 Innovations LLC accepts no liability for academic, legal, or institutional consequences arising from use of AI-generated content without appropriate human review. Content containing Greek letters, mathematical symbols, chemical notation, or other specialist characters should be reviewed carefully as AI may not render these accurately.
Quality Matters
E2PPQM PPQMFix™
Automated Quality Matters checker — all 44 QM standards, 7th Edition, with specific corrective guidance.
  • Checks all 44 QM Specific Review Standards
  • 101-point score with certification readiness
  • One-click copy of corrective wording
  • Works on D2L, Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard
  • Scan history with CSV export
QMFix Credits — choose your pack
Desktop version available — please request pricing
Disclaimer
QMFix checks courses against Quality Matters standards as a guidance tool only. Results do not constitute official QM certification or guarantee QM review approval. Official certification requires a formal QM peer review process. E2 Innovations LLC is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or acting as an agent of Quality Matters. Users remain responsible for all QM certification decisions. Content containing Greek letters, mathematical symbols, chemical notation, or other specialist characters should be reviewed carefully as AI may not render these accurately.
Science Tutoring Suite
Six AI subject tutors — chemistry, physics, biology, anatomy, astronomy
ScienceFix Suite
ScienceFix™ — AI Subject Tutor Suite
Six subject-specific AI tutoring apps. Solves problems step-by-step from typed questions, photos, or scanned course pages.
Credits — choose your pack
50 credits 100 credits ★ Most Popular 300 credits
Per subject — credits never expire
General Chemistry Get
Organic Chemistry Get
Physics Algebra Get
Physics Calculus Get
Biology Get
Anatomy & Physiology Get
Astronomy Get
Select a subject below to purchase credits
Disclaimer
ScienceFix provides AI-generated academic support for educational purposes only. All content must be verified against course materials, textbooks, and instructor guidance before use. It is not a substitute for professional instruction or academic advising. E2 Innovations LLC accepts no liability for academic performance, grades, or decisions made based on AI-generated content. Content containing Greek letters, mathematical symbols, chemical notation, or other specialist characters should be reviewed carefully as AI may not render these accurately.
Industrial Products

Manufacturing

E2 Innovations LLC develops and supplies specialty materials and industrial products for applied science and industrial applications.

Specialty Chemicals
High-purity specialty chemicals for industrial, research, and laboratory applications. Formulated with precision and quality control.
Industrial Solvents
Industrial-grade solvents for manufacturing processes, cleaning applications, and chemical synthesis.
Polymer Products
Engineered polymer materials and formulations for industrial use, developed with expertise in polymer chemistry.

For manufacturing inquiries, product specifications, or bulk orders, please contact us directly.

Contact for Manufacturing Inquiry
Virtual Laboratories

Virtual Labs for Virginia Research Institute

Browser-based virtual lab simulations for college-level science courses, provided free of charge. Click any lab below — first-time users will see a brief one-time prompt asking only for the institution name and type. Takes about 15 seconds; after that, every lab on this device opens directly.

Copyright, Privacy & Accessibility © 2026 E2 Innovations LLC. All content, code, and design of these virtual labs are the property of E2 Innovations LLC and are licensed to Virginia Research Institute for educational use. Unauthorized reproduction, modification, or commercial redistribution is prohibited. We are committed to making these labs usable by everyone. Many labs include an accessible version; where a lab is not yet fully accessible, please open its accessible form, or write to us and we will provide an accessible document. We are actively developing accessible versions of the remaining labs. Virtual Labs Privacy Notice  ·  Accessibility Statement  ·  Contact: info@e2innovations.ai

Tell us where you're using these labs

We provide these labs free of charge, and we'd simply like to know which academic institutions we support — it means a great deal to us to see our work and resources being appreciated and used. Your submission is voluntary, is not linked to any individual student, and is not required to access the labs.

Thank you! We've received your submission. It means a lot to us to know who we support.
PhPhysics Labs29 available
Arch
Archimedes' Principle
Buoyancy, density measurement, fluid displacement
Available
Accessible version
Mot
Motion Graphs
Position, velocity & acceleration — graphical analysis
Available
Accessible version
Roll
Rolling Race
Conservation of energy, moments of inertia, rotational motion
Available
Accessible version
Unit
Unit Conversions
Dimensional analysis, unit conversion methods
Available
Accessible version
Volt
Voltage, Resistance and Current
Ohm's Law, series and parallel circuits, Kirchhoff's laws
Available
Accessible version
E&F
Charges and Fields
Electric field & potential, vectors, equipotentials, field lines
Available
Accessible version
Cap
Capacitor Basics
Capacitance, dielectrics, charge, voltage & stored energy
Available
Accessible version
Wav
Wave Interference
Two-source & double-slit interference, path difference, fringes
Available
Accessible version
PE1
Photoelectric Effect — Work Function
KE = hf − φ, threshold frequency, determining Planck's constant
Available
Accessible version
PE2
Photoelectric Effect — Light Intensity
Photocurrent vs intensity, fixed kinetic energy, threshold behaviour
Available
Accessible version
F=ma
Forces and Motion
Newton's laws, friction threshold, acceleration a = F/m
Available
Accessible version
Mom
Collisions and Momentum
Elastic vs inelastic collisions, conservation of momentum & energy
Available
Accessible version
SoM
States of Matter
Kinetic theory, phase changes, heating curve & latent heat
Available
Accessible version
Gas
Gas Properties
Boyle's, Charles's & Gay-Lussac's laws, ideal gas law PV = nRT
Available
Accessible version
Pen
Pendulum Lab
Period vs length & gravity, T = 2π√(L/g), measuring g
Available
Accessible version
Proj
Projectile Motion
Launch angle & speed, range & max height, 45° maximum, complementary angles
Available
Accessible version
Spr
Spring Constant
Hooke's law F = kx, force-vs-extension graph, finding unknown masses
Available
Accessible version
Ang
Angular Displacement & Acceleration
Circular motion, θ = ωt, angular velocity & acceleration, centripetal accel
Available
Accessible version
Flu
Fluid Pressure and Flow
P = ρgh, Pascal's principle, continuity, water tower & Bernoulli
Available
Accessible version
Std
Standing Waves and String Harmonics
Wave speed, harmonics, λ = 2L/n, f·λ = v, tension & resonance
Available
Accessible version
Cou
Coulomb's Law and the Inverse Square Law
Electrostatic force, F = kq₁q₂/r², attraction & repulsion, inverse square
Available
Accessible version
Opt
Geometric Optics and Image Formation
Convex lens ray tracing, thin-lens equation, magnification, real & virtual images
Available
Accessible version
1LT
The First Law of Thermodynamics
ΔU = q + W, internal energy, isochoric & isobaric processes, heat & work
Available
Accessible version
Mag
Magnetism — Field in a Current-Carrying Loop
B = μ₀nI/2R, magnetic field of a coil, turns & current, solving for radius
Available
Accessible version
CoE
Conservation of Energy
KE, PEg & mechanical energy, frictionless conservation, friction & thermal loss
Available
Accessible version
2DC
2D Collisions
Momentum components, x & y conservation, elastic vs inelastic, impulse J = Δp
Available
Accessible version
W&E
Wavelength and Energy of a Wave
Standing-wave wavelength λ = 2L/n, wave energy K = ¼μA²ω²λ, A² & f² dependence
Available
Accessible version
Ind
Electromagnetic Induction, Inductance, and Alternating Current
Faraday's law and induced voltage, self-inductance of a solenoid, and the alternating voltage of a rotating-coil generator
Available
Accessible version
SR
Special Relativity
Lorentz factor, time dilation & length contraction, relativistic energy & momentum, and mass-energy equivalence E = mc²
Available
Accessible version
OCOrganic Chemistry Labs23 available
L&S
Lab Skills & Safety
Glassware identification, PPE, lab processes, GHS hazard symbols
Available
Accessible version
Tech
Lab Techniques & Microscale Practice
Melting point, boiling point, refractive index, recrystallization, synthesis, MSDS, lab notebook
Available
Accessible version
Org
Organic Structures, Nomenclature & Geometry
Structure, VSEPR geometry, IUPAC nomenclature
Available
Accessible version
FG
Functional Group Tests
Qualitative tests for alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amines
Available
Accessible version
Conf
Conformations and Stereoisomerism
Newman projections, chair conformations, stereochemistry
Available
Accessible version
Chir
Chirality
Stereocentres, R/S configuration, polarimetry, stereocontrolled synthesis
Available
Accessible version
A/B
Organic Acids and Bases
pKa values, conjugate pairs, equilibrium direction
Available
Accessible version
Mech
Substitution and Elimination Mechanisms
SN1, SN2, E1, E2 — arrow pushing, products, kinetics
Available
Accessible version
Alk
Alkene & Alkyne Reactions
Addition reactions, hydrogenation, halogenation, retrosynthesis
Available
Accessible version
AH
Alkyl Halides
Naming, reactions, synthesis design, SDS interpretation
Available
Accessible version
ROH
Alcohols
Structure, reactions, synthesis design, microscale interpretation
Available
Accessible version
Et
Ethers & Epoxides
Williamson synthesis, ether cleavage, epoxidation, acid/base ring-opening regiochemistry & stereochemistry, SDS
Available
Accessible version
A&K
Aldehydes & Ketones
Carbonyl reactions, naming, diagnostic tests, mechanism
Available
Accessible version
COOH
Carboxylic Acids
Acidity, Fischer esterification, decarboxylation, microscale tests
Available
Accessible version
Est
Esters
Hydrolysis, saponification, Claisen, transesterification, biodiesel, polyester
Available
Accessible version
En
Enols & Enolates
Keto–enol tautomerism, α-acidity, aldol, alkylation, haloform; predicted-vs-experimental % enol; SDS
Available
Accessible version
Am
Amines
Basicity, classification, Hinsberg test, reductive amination, diazotization, drugs
Available
Accessible version
Bz
Benzene
Aromaticity, Hückel's rule, EAS reactions, Friedel-Crafts limitations
Available
Accessible version
BzD
Benzene Derivatives
Activating/deactivating groups, o/p vs meta directors, multi-step retrosynthesis
Available
Accessible version
MO
Molecular Orbital Theory
MO diagrams for diatomics & benzene, bond order, magnetism, HOMO–LUMO frontier reasoning, aromaticity
Available
Accessible version
IR
IR Spectroscopy
Functional group identification by IR; instrument bench with 6 samples; SDS & sample prep
Available
Accessible version
MS
Mass Spectrometry
EI fragmentation, alpha cleavage, McLafferty, halogen isotopes, tropylium; 6-sample MS instrument bench
Available
Accessible version
NMR
NMR Spectroscopy
¹H NMR chemical shift, integration, multiplicity, J-coupling; 6-sample 400 MHz instrument bench; deuterated solvent SDS
Available
Accessible version
UV
UV-Visible Spectroscopy
Electronic transitions (π→π*, n→π*), conjugation extending λmax, Beer-Lambert quantitation, chromophore identification; 6-cuvette spectrophotometer bench
Available
Accessible version
CHO
Carbohydrates
Fischer projections, D/L convention, aldoses vs ketoses; cyclic hemiacetal formation; α/β anomers and mutarotation; reducing sugar tests (Tollens’, Benedict’s); disaccharides & polysaccharides
Available
Accessible version
AA
Amino Acids & Peptides
20 standard amino acids classification; zwitterions, pKa values, isoelectric point pI; titration curves; peptide bond geometry (planarity, φ/ψ, trans-preference); disulfide bonds; ninhydrin detection
Available
Accessible version
GCGeneral Chemistry Labs24 available
Atom
Atoms and the Periodic Table
Atomic structure (protons, neutrons, electrons), mass number & charge, periodic table, valence electrons, periodic trends
Available
Accessible version
H₂O
Determining the Formula of a Hydrate
Heating a hydrate to constant mass, water of crystallisation, mole ratios, and the empirical formula of the hydrate
Available
Accessible version
Rxn
Chemical Reactions, Balancing, and Bonding
Balancing equations, predicting products of element combinations, and ionic vs covalent bonding
Available
Accessible version
⇌
Balancing Chemical Reactions
Reaction types, balancing with coefficients, percent yield, and empirical & molecular formulas
Available
Accessible version
Lim
Limiting Reagents
Limiting and excess reagents, product mass, leftover reactant, and percent yield
Available
Accessible version
pH
Acids, Bases, Buffers and pH
Strong & weak acids and bases, pH ↔ concentration, Ka/Kb, percent dissociation, and buffers
Available
Accessible version
Rate
Reaction Kinetics and Equilibrium
Zero, first & second order rate laws, half-life, temperature & collisions, and Le Châtelier's principle
Available
Accessible version
Mol
Concentration, Dilution and Titration
Molarity from solids, dilution (M₁V₁ = M₂V₂), and acid–base titration including diprotic acids
Available
Accessible version
Kc
Chemical Equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium, calculating Kc and Kp, the reaction quotient Q vs K, and Le Châtelier's principle
Available
Accessible version
AgCl
Gravimetric Analysis and Precipitation Titration
Determining silver-ion concentration by precipitation as AgCl, percent chloride, and precipitation titration
Available
Accessible version
Gas
Ideal Gas Laws
Boyle's, Charles's, and Gay-Lussac's laws, plus the ideal gas law PV = nRT
Available
Accessible version
Q
Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat from Q = mcΔT (mixed unknowns) and finding an unknown metal's specific heat by calorimetry
Available
Accessible version
Ion
Qualitative Analysis of Cations and Anions
Identifying the cation and anion in an unknown by flame tests, precipitation with sodium hydroxide and ammonia, the silver and barium tests, and the brown ring test — predict first, then confirm
Available
Accessible version
pOH
pH, pOH, and Acid-Base Titration
Converting between pH, pOH, [H⁺] and [OH⁻]; the pH of strong and weak acids and bases; and full acid-base titration curves with equivalence and half-equivalence points
Available
Accessible version
Conc
Dilution, Titration and Molar Concentration Units
Molarity, molality, mole fraction, mass percent and mass-volume percent; dilution (C₁V₁ = C₂V₂); and determining an unknown concentration by titration
Available
Accessible version
ΔTf
Colligative Properties
Boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression (ΔT = i·k·m), the van't Hoff factor for electrolytes, and determining a molar mass from freezing-point depression
Available
Accessible version
VSEPR
Molecular Shape
Lewis structures and electron counting, VSEPR electron-domain and molecular geometry, bond angles, and molecular polarity
Available
Accessible version
IMF
Intermolecular Forces
London dispersion, dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonding; the interaction-potential well; and how force strength sets melting, boiling, and critical points of neon, argon, oxygen, and water
Available
Accessible version
Asp
Synthesis of Aspirin
Esterification of salicylic acid with acetic anhydride; stoichiometry and theoretical yield, percent yield, and purity from the melting point
Available
Accessible version
Redox
Redox Reactions
Oxidation numbers, identifying oxidation and reduction with their agents, galvanic cells with animated electron flow and cell potential, and predicting reactivity from reduction potentials
Available
Accessible version
Thermo
Thermodynamics
Calorimetry with an animated thermometer, enthalpy of reaction, the sign of entropy, Gibbs free energy and spontaneity, and the crossover temperature
Available
Accessible version
Redox+Th
Redox Reactions and Thermodynamics
Combined lab: oxidation numbers, galvanic cells and cell potential, Gibbs free energy and spontaneity, and ΔG from cell potential
Available
Accessible version
Kin
Chemical Kinetics and Rate Laws
Rate laws, integrated rate laws, half-life, and Arrhenius activation energy
Available
Accessible version
Ksp
Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product
Kₛₚ, molar solubility, the common-ion effect, and Q vs Kₛₚ precipitation
Available
Accessible version
Buf
Buffers and the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
Buffer pH from Henderson-Hasselbalch, preparing a buffer to a target pH, and buffer capacity
Available
Accessible version
N
Nitrogen Chemistry
Oxidation states of nitrogen, ammonia and the ammonium test, nitric and nitrous acids, and the nitrate and nitrite tests
Available
Accessible version
CO₂
Carbonates and Carbon Dioxide
Preparing and testing CO₂ with limewater, carbonate and hydrogencarbonate reactions, thermal decomposition, and water hardness
Available
Accessible version
pH
Introduction to Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale
The pH scale, pH and pOH, strong vs weak acids and bases, indicators, and an introduction to buffers and Henderson-Hasselbalch
Available
Accessible version
Ion
Qualitative Analysis: Ca, Ba, K, Ammonium, Anions, and Group IA
Distinguishing Ca²⁺ and Ba²⁺, confirmatory anion tests, and Group IA flame analysis with cobalt glass
Available
Accessible version
ClO
Analysis of Bleach
Iodometric redox titration of hypochlorite with thiosulfate to a starch endpoint, and the percent sodium hypochlorite
Available
Accessible version

Support Virginia Research Institute

These virtual labs are provided free to all students through Virginia Research Institute. If our work and resources have been useful to you, we'd love to hear from you and know the institutions we support — it means a great deal to us.

❤ Support VRI

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How to Use the Labs

Our virtual labs are provided free of charge. The brief one-time prompt is per device, not per student.

1
Click the lab link above or the link your instructor posted in the LMS
2
First-time users on this device: a small window asks for institution name and type, plus agreement to the terms of use. Takes about 15 seconds — once per device.
3
The lab opens directly
4
Read the Theory and Instructions sections carefully before starting
5
Run the interactive simulation and record your data
6
Review the example lab report on the lab page for format guidance
7
Return to your LMS and submit your report to the dropbox
Free for all students · No account required · Works on any device

For Instructors

Post the direct lab link in your D2L or Canvas course. First-time students will see a brief one-time prompt for institution name and agreement to the terms; after that, every lab link works directly for them on that device.

Example link to post in your LMS:

https://e2innovations.ai/labs/lab-skills-safety.html
Contact Us
Free Subject Notes

Free Subject Notes prepared for VRI

Complementary reading notes for college-level science courses, prepared for Virginia Research Institute and provided free of charge as Open Educational Resources. Open a subject to start reading — more subjects are on the way.

Interactive Quizzes

Interactive Quizzes

Self-checking practice quizzes for college-level science courses, prepared for Virginia Research Institute and provided free of charge. Each quiz generates fresh questions every time you take it and ends with a personal report showing how many you got right. More subjects are on the way.

Ch
General Chemistry
Practice quizzes for General Chemistry.
General Chemistry Foundations
Measurement, atoms, and energy at the General Chemistry 1 level: scientific notation, significant figures and calculations, metric and US customary unit conversions, temperature conversions, percentage error, the periodic table, protons, neutrons and electrons, atomic number and mass, valency, isotopes, heat calculations, the energy of a change of state, and phase diagrams.
Chemical Nomenclature and Formulas
Naming and writing formulas: binary ionic compounds, variable-charge metals with Roman numerals, polyatomic ions, molecular compounds with prefixes, acids, predicting ion charges, and combining ions into formulas.
The Mole and Stoichiometry
The mole and stoichiometry: molar mass, mole conversions, percent composition, empirical and molecular formulas, balancing equations, mole ratios, mass calculations, limiting reagent, and percent yield.
Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Atoms and the periodic table: subatomic particles, atomic number, mass and isotopes, electron configuration, groups, periods and blocks, periodic trends, valency, transition metals, and Groups 1, 2, and 7.
Atomic Theory, Light, and Quantum Numbers
Atomic theory and light: the nature of light, frequency, wavelength and photon energy, the Bohr model and hydrogen transitions, quantum numbers, subshells and orbitals, and electron configurations.
Bonding, Lewis Structures, and Molecular Geometry
Bonding and shape: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds, the octet rule, counting valence electrons, bond order, electronegativity and polarity, VSEPR geometry, Lewis structures, and intermolecular forces.
Ideal Gas Law and Gas Calculations
Gas calculations: PV = nRT solved for each variable, molar volume at STP, gas density, Graham's law, Dalton's law of partial pressures, Avogadro's law, gas stoichiometry, and the kinetic molecular theory.
Gases, Energy, and Chemical Reactions
Gases, energy, and reactions: Boyle's, Charles's, Gay-Lussac's and the combined gas law, thermochemistry and enthalpy, energy diagrams, chemical equilibrium and Le Chatelier's principle, and reaction rates.
Solutions, Acids, and Bases
Solutions and acid-base chemistry: percent concentration, molarity, dilution, electrolytes, precipitation and solubility, osmosis and tonicity, the pH scale, strong and weak acids, conjugate pairs, and buffers.
Oxidation Numbers and Redox
Oxidation numbers and redox: assigning oxidation numbers in compounds and ions, oxidation and reduction, oxidizing and reducing agents, recognizing redox reactions, half-reactions, and balancing.
Ph
Physics: Calculus-Based
Practice quizzes for calculus-based physics.
Units and Measurement
SI units, derived units and prefixes, unit conversions, dimensional analysis, significant figures, scientific notation, uncertainty and error, orders of magnitude, and the dimensions of derivatives and integrals.
Vectors
Scalars and vectors, components, magnitude and direction, unit vectors, addition and subtraction, the dot and cross products, the angle between vectors, and vector functions with their derivatives and integrals.
Kinematics in One Dimension
Position, displacement, velocity and acceleration, velocity as the derivative of position, displacement as the integral of velocity, the kinematic equations, free fall, and motion graphs.
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
Position, velocity and acceleration vectors, projectile motion including time of flight, maximum height and range, relative velocity, and the vector-calculus treatment of motion.
Newton's Laws of Motion
The three laws, force, mass and weight, net force and free-body diagrams, the types of forces, equilibrium, Newton's second law in components, and the momentum form of the second law.
Applications of Newton's Laws
Static and kinetic friction, the normal force, inclined planes, tension in connected systems and the Atwood machine, drag and terminal velocity, apparent weight, and variable forces.
Uniform Circular Motion
Centripetal acceleration and force, period, frequency and angular velocity, the real forces that supply the centripetal force, cars on curves and banked turns, vertical loops, and non-uniform circular motion.
Work and Kinetic Energy
Work by constant and variable forces, work as the integral of force over distance, the dot-product form, kinetic energy, the work-energy theorem, power, and the work done by a spring.
Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
Gravitational and elastic potential energy, conservative and non-conservative forces, mechanical-energy conservation, energy with friction, the force from a potential energy, and potential-energy curves.
Linear Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions
Momentum, impulse and the impulse-momentum theorem, impulse as the integral of force over time, conservation of momentum, elastic and inelastic collisions, recoil and explosions, and the momentum form of the second law.
Center of Mass
The center of mass of particle systems in one and two dimensions, uniform and symmetric objects, finding the center of mass by integration, its motion, and the effect of external forces.
Rotational Kinematics and Dynamics
Angular position, velocity and acceleration, the rotational kinematic equations, the link between linear and angular quantities, torque, moment of inertia, the rotational form of the second law, rotational kinetic energy, and the moment of inertia by integration.
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a particle and a rigid body, its direction, torque as the rate of change of angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum, and applications from figure skaters to planetary orbits and gyroscopes.
Static Equilibrium
The two conditions for equilibrium, torque and the lever arm, balancing torques, solving for unknown forces on beams, ladders and supports, choosing a pivot, the center of gravity, and the types of equilibrium.
Elasticity
Stress and strain, Young's modulus, Hooke's law for materials, elastic and plastic deformation, the shear and bulk moduli, tensile and compressive stress, and the stress-strain curve.
Universal Gravitation and Orbital Motion
Newton's law of gravitation, the inverse-square law, gravitational field strength and potential energy, orbital motion and velocity, Kepler's three laws, escape velocity, and satellites.
Fluid Mechanics
Density and pressure, pressure in a fluid, Pascal's principle and hydraulics, atmospheric and gauge pressure, buoyancy and Archimedes' principle, floating and sinking, the continuity equation, and Bernoulli's equation.
Oscillations and Simple Harmonic Motion
The defining features of simple harmonic motion, period, frequency and angular frequency, the mass-spring and pendulum periods, energy in oscillation, the position, velocity and acceleration functions with their derivatives, and resonance.
Mechanical Waves
Transverse and longitudinal waves, wave properties, the wave speed and the speed of a wave on a string, the wave function, reflection, refraction and diffraction, superposition and interference, and standing waves.
Sound
The nature of sound, the speed of sound, pitch and loudness, sound intensity and the decibel scale, the Doppler effect, standing waves in strings and pipes, resonance and harmonics, and beats.
Temperature and Heat
Temperature and its scales, thermal expansion, specific heat and calorimetry, latent heat, and heat transfer.
The Kinetic Theory of Gases
The ideal gas law, the kinetic-molecular model, molecular kinetic energy, rms speeds, and internal energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Internal energy, work done by a gas, the first law, and the isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric and isochoric processes.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy, heat engines and efficiency, refrigerators, the Carnot cycle, and the direction of natural processes.
Electric Charges and Fields
Electric charge, conductors and insulators, Coulomb's law, the electric field, field lines, and superposition.
Gauss's Law
Electric flux, Gauss’s law, the fields of point charges, spheres, lines and planes, and conductors in equilibrium.
Electric Potential
Electric potential energy, potential and voltage, potential difference, the electron volt, and equipotential surfaces.
Capacitance
Capacitors, the parallel-plate capacitor, dielectrics, energy stored, and capacitors in series and parallel.
Current and Resistance
Electric current, resistance and resistivity, Ohm's law, and electric power and energy.
Direct-Current Circuits
Series and parallel resistors, Kirchhoff's rules, EMF and internal resistance, RC circuits, and power.
Magnetic Forces and Fields
The magnetic force on moving charges and currents, circular motion in a field, and torque on a loop.
Sources of Magnetic Fields
The field of a current, the straight wire, solenoids, Ampere's and Biot-Savart laws, and magnetic materials.
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic flux, Faraday's law, Lenz's law, motional EMF, generators, and eddy currents.
Inductance
Self-inductance, the induced EMF across an inductor, energy stored, mutual inductance, and RL circuits.
Alternating-Current Circuits
AC voltage and current, RMS values, reactance, impedance, RLC resonance, power, and transformers.
Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell's equations, the nature and speed of EM waves, the electromagnetic spectrum, energy, and polarization.
Reflection and Refraction of Light
The nature of light, the law of reflection, refraction and the index of refraction, Snell’s law, total internal reflection, and dispersion.
Mirrors and Lenses
Plane, concave and convex mirrors, converging and diverging lenses, the mirror and thin-lens equations, magnification, and ray tracing.
Wave Optics
The wave nature of light, interference, Young’s double slit, single-slit diffraction, diffraction gratings, thin films, and polarization.
Optical Instruments
The human eye and vision correction, the magnifying glass, the microscope, the telescope, the camera, and aberrations.
Relativity
The postulates of special relativity, time dilation, length contraction, simultaneity, relativistic momentum, and mass-energy equivalence.
Quantum Physics
Blackbody radiation, the photon and E = hf, the photoelectric effect, wave-particle duality, and the uncertainty principle.
Atomic Physics
Early atomic models, atomic spectra, the Bohr model, energy levels and transitions, quantum numbers, the laser, and X-rays.
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Physics: Algebra-Based
Practice quizzes for algebra-based physics.
Units and Measurement
SI units, prefixes, unit conversions, dimensional analysis, significant figures, scientific notation, uncertainty, and orders of magnitude.
Vectors
Scalars and vectors, components, magnitude and direction, unit vectors, addition and subtraction, the dot and cross products, and the angle between vectors.
Kinematics in One Dimension
Position, velocity and acceleration, the kinematic equations, free fall, and motion graphs.
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
Projectile motion including time of flight, maximum height and range, and relative velocity.
Newton's Laws of Motion
The three laws, force, mass and weight, net force, free-body diagrams, and equilibrium.
Applications of Newton's Laws
Friction, the normal force, inclined planes, tension, the Atwood machine, drag, and apparent weight.
Uniform Circular Motion
Centripetal acceleration and force, period and angular velocity, cars on curves and banked turns, and vertical loops.
Work and Kinetic Energy
Work, the work-energy theorem, kinetic energy, power, and the work done by a spring.
Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
Gravitational and elastic potential energy, conservative forces, mechanical-energy conservation, and energy with friction.
Linear Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions
Momentum, impulse, conservation of momentum, elastic and inelastic collisions, and recoil.
Center of Mass
The center of mass of particle systems, uniform objects, its motion, and total momentum.
Rotational Kinematics and Dynamics
Angular position, velocity and acceleration, torque, moment of inertia, and rotational kinetic energy.
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of particles and rigid bodies, torque, and conservation of angular momentum.
Static Equilibrium
The two conditions for equilibrium, torque and the lever arm, balancing torques, and unknown forces on beams and ladders.
Elasticity
Stress and strain, Young's modulus, Hooke's law for materials, the shear and bulk moduli, and the stress-strain curve.
Universal Gravitation and Orbital Motion
Newton's law of gravitation, gravitational field and potential energy, orbits, Kepler's laws, and escape velocity.
Fluid Mechanics
Density and pressure, Pascal's principle, buoyancy and Archimedes' principle, the continuity equation, and Bernoulli's equation.
Oscillations and Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion, the mass-spring and pendulum periods, energy in oscillation, and resonance.
Mechanical Waves
Transverse and longitudinal waves, wave speed, the wave on a string, reflection, interference, and standing waves.
Sound
The nature and speed of sound, pitch and loudness, intensity and the decibel scale, the Doppler effect, and beats.
Temperature and Heat
Temperature and its scales, thermal expansion, specific heat and calorimetry, latent heat, and heat transfer.
The Kinetic Theory of Gases
The ideal gas law, the kinetic-molecular model, molecular kinetic energy, rms speeds, and internal energy.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Internal energy, work done by a gas, the first law, and the isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric and isochoric processes.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy, heat engines and efficiency, refrigerators, the Carnot cycle, and the direction of natural processes.
Electric Charges and Fields
Electric charge, conductors and insulators, Coulomb's law, the electric field, field lines, and superposition.
Gauss's Law
Electric flux, Gauss’s law, the fields of point charges, spheres, lines and planes, and conductors in equilibrium.
Electric Potential
Electric potential energy, potential and voltage, potential difference, the electron volt, and equipotential surfaces.
Capacitance
Capacitors, the parallel-plate capacitor, dielectrics, energy stored, and capacitors in series and parallel.
Current and Resistance
Electric current, resistance and resistivity, Ohm's law, and electric power and energy.
Direct-Current Circuits
Series and parallel resistors, Kirchhoff's rules, EMF and internal resistance, RC circuits, and power.
Magnetic Forces and Fields
The magnetic force on moving charges and currents, circular motion in a field, and torque on a loop.
Sources of Magnetic Fields
The field of a current, the straight wire, solenoids, Ampere's and Biot-Savart laws, and magnetic materials.
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic flux, Faraday's law, Lenz's law, motional EMF, generators, and eddy currents.
Inductance
Self-inductance, the induced EMF across an inductor, energy stored, mutual inductance, and RL circuits.
Alternating-Current Circuits
AC voltage and current, RMS values, reactance, impedance, RLC resonance, power, and transformers.
Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell's equations, the nature and speed of EM waves, the electromagnetic spectrum, energy, and polarization.
Reflection and Refraction of Light
The nature of light, the law of reflection, refraction and the index of refraction, Snell’s law, total internal reflection, and dispersion.
Mirrors and Lenses
Plane, concave and convex mirrors, converging and diverging lenses, the mirror and thin-lens equations, magnification, and ray tracing.
Wave Optics
The wave nature of light, interference, Young’s double slit, single-slit diffraction, diffraction gratings, thin films, and polarization.
Optical Instruments
The human eye and vision correction, the magnifying glass, the microscope, the telescope, the camera, and aberrations.
Relativity
The postulates of special relativity, time dilation, length contraction, simultaneity, relativistic momentum, and mass-energy equivalence.
Quantum Physics
Blackbody radiation, the photon and E = hf, the photoelectric effect, wave-particle duality, and the uncertainty principle.
Atomic Physics
Early atomic models, atomic spectra, the Bohr model, energy levels and transitions, quantum numbers, the laser, and X-rays.
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Astronomy
Practice quizzes for astronomy.
Science and the Universe
The nature of astronomy and science, scales and light-years, and a tour of the solar system, stars, galaxies, and the universe.
Observing the Sky
The celestial sphere, constellations, ancient Greek astronomy, and the shift from Ptolemy to Copernicus and Galileo.
Orbits and Gravity
Kepler’s laws, Newton’s laws and universal gravitation, orbits, satellites, and the tides.
Earth, Moon, and Sky
Earth’s rotation and the seasons, keeping time and the calendar, the phases of the Moon, and eclipses.
Radiation and Spectra
The nature of light, the electromagnetic spectrum, thermal radiation, spectral lines, and the Doppler effect.
Astronomical Instruments
Telescopes, resolution, detectors, radio telescopes, observing across the spectrum, and space telescopes.
Other Worlds: The Solar System
The layout of the solar system, terrestrial and giant planets, small bodies, and how the planets formed.
Earth as a Planet
Earth’s interior, plate tectonics, atmosphere, the greenhouse effect, and the magnetic field.
Cratered Worlds
Impact cratering, the Moon’s surface and origin, and the surface of Mercury.
Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars
Venus’s runaway greenhouse, Mars’s surface and climate, and the search for water and life.
The Giant Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, their interiors and atmospheres, and their major moons.
Rings, Moons, and Pluto
Planetary rings, the moons of the outer solar system, Titan, Pluto, and the Kuiper Belt.
Comets and Asteroids
Asteroids, comets and their tails, meteors and meteorites, and near-Earth objects.
Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System
Meteorites as samples, the solar nebula, condensation and accretion, and the age of the solar system.
The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star
The Sun’s interior and atmosphere, sunspots, the solar cycle, solar activity, and space weather.
The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse
Nuclear fusion, the proton-proton chain, mass-energy, hydrostatic equilibrium, and solar neutrinos.
Analyzing Starlight
Star colors and temperature, spectral classification, composition, the Doppler effect, and magnitude.
The Stars: A Celestial Census
Stellar masses from binaries, the mass-luminosity relation, and the Hertzsprung Russell diagram.
Celestial Distances
Parallax, standard candles like Cepheids and supernovae, the distance ladder, and galaxy distances.
Between the Stars: Gas and Dust
The interstellar medium, gas and dust, nebulae, molecular clouds, and cosmic recycling.
The Birth of Stars and Exoplanets
Where stars form, protostars, protoplanetary disks, and detecting exoplanets by transit and radial velocity.
Stars from Adolescence to Old Age
The main-sequence life of a star, red giants, how mass sets a star’s fate, and star clusters.
The Death of Stars
White dwarfs and planetary nebulae, supernovae, neutron stars and pulsars, and black holes.
Black Holes and Curved Spacetime
General relativity, curved spacetime, the event horizon, and detecting black holes.
The Milky Way Galaxy
Our galaxy’s structure, the galactic center and its black hole, rotation, and dark matter.
Galaxies
What galaxies are, their types, groups and clusters, and galaxy interactions and evolution.
Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Black Holes
Active galaxies, quasars, jets, and the supermassive black holes that power them.
The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies
Looking back in time, Hubble’s law, the cosmic web, dark matter, and observing the distant universe.
The Big Bang
The expanding universe, the cosmic microwave background, the early universe, and dark energy.
Life in the Universe
Astrobiology, the requirements for life, life in the solar system, and the search for life.
Or
Organic Chemistry
Practice quizzes for organic chemistry.
Introduction to Organic Compounds
The carbon atom, hybridization and geometry, sigma and pi bonds, oxidation and reduction, and acids and bases.
Classification of Organic Compounds
Drawing structures, the broad classes, aromaticity and Huckel’s rule, functional groups, and the degree of unsaturation.
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
IUPAC name structure, functional group priority, choosing and numbering the main chain, and aromatic and heterocyclic naming.
Isomers of Organic Compounds
Constitutional isomers, Newman and chair conformations, geometric E-Z isomers, chirality with R/S and Fischer projections, and meso and racemic mixtures.
Reaction Mechanisms, Part 1
Thermodynamics and kinetics, the SN1, SN2, E1, and E2 mechanisms, radical substitution, and substitution versus elimination.
Reaction Mechanisms, Part 2
Electrophilic addition, the bromonium ion and Markovnikov’s rule, the peroxide effect, and the pinacol, Beckmann, Hofmann, and Baeyer-Villiger rearrangements.
Alkanes
Structure and sources, crude oil refining, physical properties, preparation, free-radical halogenation, and conformations.
Alkenes
Structure and isomerism, elimination and the Wittig reaction, addition of hydrogen, halogens, HX and water, oxidation and cleavage, and the Diels-Alder reaction.
Alkynes
Structure, the acidity of terminal alkynes, reduction to cis or trans alkenes, electrophilic addition, and acetylide chemistry and chain extension.
Alkyl Halides
Classification and the C-X bond, preparation, substitution and elimination, reduction, and the Grignard, organolithium, and Gilman reagents.
Alcohols and Thiols
Classification and acidity, preparation by hydration, reduction, and Grignard, the C-O and O-H reactions, oxidation, and thiol chemistry.
Ethers and Epoxides
Structure and the peroxide hazard, the Williamson synthesis, ether cleavage, epoxide formation and ring opening, and crown ethers.
Aldehydes
The carbonyl group and tautomerism, preparation, nucleophilic addition, reduction and deoxygenation, alpha-substitution, and oxidation tests.
Ketones
The ketone group, preparation, nucleophilic addition, alpha-substitution and the haloform reaction, the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation, and reduction and tests.
Carboxylic Acids
The carboxyl group, acidity and the carboxylate anion, hydrogen bonding, preparation, nucleophilic acyl substitution, and decarboxylation.
Esters
The ester group, nomenclature, preparation, hydrolysis and saponification, reduction, the Claisen and Dieckmann condensations, and transesterification.
Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
The four families and the reactivity ladder, and the reactions of acyl halides, anhydrides, amides, and nitriles by nucleophilic acyl substitution.
Amines and Nitro Compounds
Amine classes and basicity, preparation, the Hinsberg and carbylamine tests, Hofmann elimination, diazotisation, and nitro compounds.
Benzene
Structure and aromaticity, Huckel’s rule, preparation, electrophilic aromatic substitution, the Friedel-Crafts reactions, and the reactions of alkyl benzenes.
Benzene Derivatives
The common derivatives, aryl halides and SNAr, nitrobenzene and phenol, aniline and diazonium chemistry, and directing effects.
Molecular Orbital Theory
The LCAO principle, orbital filling, diatomics, pi-conjugated systems, the MO diagram of benzene, the Frost circle, and frontier orbitals.
Organometallic Compounds
Carbon-metal bond polarity, the Grignard, organolithium, and Gilman reagents, cross-coupling reactions, and synthesis.
Spectroscopic Methods
The electromagnetic spectrum, quantised energy levels, and an overview of IR, UV/Vis, mass spectrometry, and NMR.
Mass Spectrometry
The principle and the instrument, reading a spectrum, isotope patterns, fragmentation, the McLafferty rearrangement, and the nitrogen rule.
Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
Electronic transitions, the Beer-Lambert law, chromophores and auxochromes, conjugation, and the Woodward-Fieser rules.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Molecular vibrations and mode counting, the stretching-frequency equation, interpreting bonds and regions, and carbonyl frequencies.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Nuclear spin, chemical shift and integration, spin-spin splitting, standard proton shifts, and 13C NMR.
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